Springtime in the Smokies

From Ohio to Tennessee, below the gloomy, slow-moving cumulus expanse lay an assortment of tender, neon-colored new-growth with increasing lushness for every mile south I traveled. Phenological patterns on the hillside canvas revealed ecological secrets along the roadside, only told during autumn and spring - I live for road trips.

Up along the Blue Ridge Mountains, terpenes and isoprenes paint the horizon blue, deeper with distance. These hydrocarbons are volatile to the environment, produced naturally by trees as a defense against rising temperatures and other stresses; though, they sure do make for a pretty scene from Wythville to Knoxville. 

It wasn't long before I reached route 441, where meandering trout-filled montane streams, and an assortment of forest types from all latitudes greeted me. A quilt of subtropic magnolias of the south, sugar maples and yellow birches of New England, and firs and spruces from Canada all welcomed me through the gates of the Great Smoky Mountains, home to an estimated 90,000 species, ~150 acres of old-growth forest, and some of the oldest highlands in America - not-to-mention 21 national champion trees to boot!

With such diversity and charm, it's no wonder why the Smokies is the most visited National Park in America, with over 9-million visitors per year and up to 60,000 visitors per day during summer months. Though, with careful planning, you may be lucky enough to see more wildlife than humans. 

Although much of the surrounding population is Anglo-Saxon Protestant, earning this region the name, "the buckle of the bible belt," the Smokies borders the Eastern Cherokee reservation in North Carolina, which is home to descendants of 800 Cherokees that avoided the Trail of Tears - an enormous exodus that forced 15,000 fellow tribe members west during the 19th century. 

The Cherokee are the people who named the smoky mountain range Shaconage, meaning "place of the blue smoke." They weren't far off with their early designation, as the "smoke" is a product of the aforementioned toxic hydrocarbons mixed with natural fog. This range experiences the wettest conditions in the contiguous US outside of the Pacific NW, caused by a steep elevation gradient as warm, humid air from the Gulf of Mexico collides with the high elevation mountains. Such a sharp environmental contrast creates another layer of spatial heterogeneity that promotes biodiversity in the landscape.

After a quick stop at Newfound Gap to refuel on Genoa and sharp cheese, I laid out a plan to hike Charlie's Bunion trail, Chimney Tops trail, Mt. Leconte trail, and fish the Oconaluftee river for trout. 

In five weekdays, I hiked over forty winding miles past bear traps, mule convoys, and carpets of spring ephemerals - rich bouquets of painted trillium, yellow mandarin, and trout lilies to name a few. Early morning drives kicked up dozens of wild turkey, deer, and even a large, groggy black bear. And I'll never forget the abundance of black-eyed junco nests along the trail, or the cerulean warbler doing a courtship dance on the top of Mt. Leconte within 10-feet of me, or the gang of Elk near smokemont campsite. Black-throated green warblers, scarlet tanagers, and eastern-towhees guided me with their harmonies through the fog, as I moved through labyrinths of rhododendron. 

Perhaps the most memorable experiences for me were made with friends - new and old. I was lucky enough to meet a fellow hiker along Rainbow Trail, who made an excellent partner for the rest of the trip. And an old college peer and her boyfriend invited me into their house in Knoxville for some homemade food and drinks - the southern hospitality was enormous and much appreciated! 

The Great Smoky Mountains, as with any other experience, offers an abundance of awe and passion the deeper you look, and with the more you know. So bring your field guides to these mystic places, fore they will teach you memories. Cheers!

Cape Cod Ecology

For my annual holiday visit home each year, I've made a tradition of stopping at a local Barnes & Nobel before seeing family after the long drive from Ohio to Massachusetts. Always with a warm coffee in hand, I scour the travel section in search of weekend New England haunts to explore while I let the nostalgia of my hometown sink in, and my legs stretch. This year, I came across a map of Cape Cod that brought me back to memories of family beach days and late-night fishing trips. And then I remembered hearing about the Cape Cod National Seashore (CCNS) - home to the longest stretch of undeveloped shoreline on the east coast. In my experience, national lakes and seashores are some of the most well-kept, scenic areas that always seem to be in the heart of a historical hotspot like the old whaling towns of the outer Cape, artifacts of what are now centers for culture and art. With minimal traffic, free parking, and uncontested views of the offseason, I couldn't pass up the opportunity to see Cape Cod from on ecological perspective. Even though the winter weather outlook was fierce for the weekend, I bought the map and began to plan. 

Cape Cod is an 18,000 year old glacial outwash that was formed as large terminal moraines at the end of the last glacial period in North America (Wisconsonian). In fact, it is the largest glacial peninsula in the world. Archaeologic findings suggest humans have occupied these lands for the past 12,000 years. Since the colonization of North America in the 17th century, Cape Cod has undergone major disturbances. Logging for agricultural lands, urban sprawl, and over-harvesting of marine wildlife (mostly via whaling) have all contributed to a worn land-use legacy; however, the creation of the CCNS in 1963 by John F. Kennedy was a huge step toward conserving this ecologically important area. 

Massachusetts is part of the Eastern Deciduous Forest, and has three distinct ecoregions: Northeastern Highlands, Northeastern Coastal Zone, and the Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens. Cape Cod exists in the Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens ecoregion, which is a globally uncommon community only found here and New Jersey. This community is predominately made up of pitch pine, with a mixture of hardwood plant communities throughout.

Early Pilgrim writings describe the forests of Cape Cod as open woods that extended to the very "brink of the sea."  Although, in the 18th and 19th centuries, agriculture dominated the landscape, drastically impacting the forested landscape and ecology of Cape Cod. When Thoreau visited in the 1850s, he described an area completely devoid of trees. Soon after, an extensive effort to plant trees for erosion control took place as the shift to a tourism-driven economy arose. Today, forests are returning with a higher proportion of hardwood species for many reasons. Currently, the dominant tree species is still pitch pine (Pinus rigida), with greater levels of black oak (Quercus velutina), white oak (Q. alba), and bear oak (Q. ilicifolia) than ever before. Other  abundant species include red maple (Acer rubrum), American white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), and American beech (Fagus grandifolia). Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) groves can also be found in certain areas - they were introduced from southern states to assist with erosion control.

During this trip, I was fortunate to visit most of the top scenic areas throughout CCNS; Among the forest types, scrub forest (pictured) seemed to exist more than any other, which makes complete sense due to the poor acidic soils and harsh weather conditions of Cape Cod. This is an area with harsh winters and heavy salt spray from the ocean. Further, the sandy soils are very nutrient poor, acidic, and retain little to no water - it takes hearty, drought-resistant species like oaks and pitch pine to survive here, which they have proved to do for thousands of years. In the scrub forest I encountered, stunted pitch pine, bear oak, black oak, and white oak dominated the landscape. Their stature is not an indication of age as it takes a lot longer for trees to grow here than in more temperate areas throughout the country. The moisture from the ocean provides excellent conditions for a variety of lichens to take refuge, and the herbaceous layer consists mostly of grasses. Prior to fire suppression efforts, this landscape was well adapted to random fire events caused by lightening strikes.

         

Bear oak is a scrubby, slow-growing species that is found is harsh environments with low nutrient availability. The gnarly, stunted growth form is an indication of this species toughness. Pitch pine grows predominately throughout the Appalachian mountains and Atlantic coast, where is does well in sandy, acidic soils. Here in Ohio, we find them on ridgetops, often on xeric ridgetops where soil nutrients are low. Although, in Ohio, I have yet to see the characteristic epicormic branching seen in many field guides like that of Cape Cod pitch pines. I wonder what this might be an indicator of. Pitch pine got its name from the pitch it produces, which was used to make turpentine spirits and other resinous products.

Oak trees were mostly suppressed to the understory from the abundance of pitch pines - an allelopathic species that emits growth-inhibiting chemicals into the surrounding soil; but with the help of the turpentine beetle pest, forest gaps, and natural succession, oaks have begun to increasingly reach the canopy. Oaks are hardy, shade tolerant tree species that live longer than pitch pines. Although black oak is by far the most dominant representative of this genus on Cape Cod, red oaks are also found where the soil is more fertile. Also, post oak is an uncommon species on the Cape as well.

As secondary forest begins to grow, patterns emerge that indicate human disturbances have completely altered the vegetation of Cape Cod. For example, the area was almost completely forested pre-settlement. Half of the land was cleared for timber, and the other half was cleared for agriculture. Land that was plowed now seems to be forested with pitch pine. Although, land that was only cleared for timber retains many more oaks. Clearing forest also opened up the door for heath barrens that are important for erosion control on the Cape. 

Unfortunately, a lethal insect pest has recently made its way to Cape Cod and the islands, which preys on black oak trees - a species of tree that makes up a quarter of the trees in the area. The oak crypt gall wasp is worrying entomologists, especially because little is known about this insect. They suspect climate change has something to do with their spread.

 

American beach grass (Ammophila breviligulata) and beach heather (Hudsonia tomentosa) often grow in close procimity to one another, and serve similar functions in dune ecosystems. American beach grass has many strains, but the above-mentioned Cape Cod species was selected for use to replant along the eastern seaboard after a devastating hurricane in 1938 damages a lot of the dune systems. It is also planted along the great lakes to protect dues there as well. Beach heather is also common along the dunes in CCNS, and is well adapted for harsh windy conditions with its low-growing growth-form. The sand-loving earth star fungus was strewn about the dunes, and a terrapin diamondback turtle nest was found nearby.

         

One of the highlights of my trip was hiking the Great Island Trail in Wellfleet, which offered a glimpse of tidal marshes, pitch pine forests, and tall dunes. Along the way, I found dozens of Wellfleet oyesters, renowned for their sweet, fresh taste. Cape Cod has historically been surrounded by very fertile, clean waters that increase the taste of oysters, and foster many marine organisms. In fact, Stellwagen Bank is three miles from Provincetown and still draws various of species of whales for the abundance of zooplankton it harbors. The shallow waters there create a very rich ecosystem that fishermen still take advantage of today; although, due to years of over harvest, the whaling industry that helped build many the towns took a large toll on whale populations.

Two common plants found atop the dunes of CCNS are bearberry and bayberry. It is no surprise to see bearberry growing along the harsh dunes of Cape Cod since it is found in subalpine climates of the north. Bayberry forms fruit that have a waxy coating, which is still used today to make candles. The second picture from the right is broom crowberry - a regionally endemic plant that is found in coastal sand-plain communities from New Jersey to Newfoundland. It is listed as a Species of Special Concern by the state of Massachusetts. Cape Cod has long harbored some of the largest and best known populations of broom crowberry, with descriptions by early settlers depicting carpets of the plant and healthy seedling recruitment. Lastly, Massachusetts' state flower, Mayflower, can be seen blooming practically anywhere along Cape Cod.

Atlantic white cedar inhabits some kettle holes found on the Cape, which is close to the northern-most extent for this species. At one time, this species was very abundant, but has since declined due to climate change over time, and over-harvesting. 

Humans long favored the rot-resistant, durable wood from this species. Native Americans used hollowed out white cedars for canoes, and early settlers made cedar shingles, which is why in-tact cedar swamps like this one are difficult to find. 

This trip not only brought back childhood memories; it also proved to be a learning experience filled with the sights, sounds, and scents of New England's coast that I've missed dearly while being in Ohio. As my education is nearing its end, it feels more and more like time to head back home for some period of time before entering my field for the rest of my life. It is always exciting to return to a place I visited as a child, and see it from a new perspective - a much more informed and observant perspective. At the end of this trip, I felt like I had traveled full circle. Regardless, one thing is for sure - Cape Cod is one of the most beautiful places I've been.The Cape Cod National Seashore is well worth the trip.

A Summer in the Woods: Part 2

Although Zaleski, Tar Hollow, and Vinton Furnace State Forests are fragmented from each other, they still make up 55,270 acres of combined woodland area - only 8,500 acres short of Ohio's largest state forest, Shawnee, or "the little smokies." As state forests, they are open to forestry practices that - if done sustainably - promote a healthy mosaic of different plant communities undergoing varying levels of ecological succession. This, in combination with natural disturbances and other factors, increases the level of landscape heterogeneity - a phenomenon that is important for increasing habitat suitability for more species. Through the improvement of forestry best practices over time, this triad of forest systems in Southeastern, Ohio has effectively helped conserve biodiversity in these areas and, as a result, the resilience of these social-ecological forest systems has also increased. As a testament to Ohio's improving forests, I would like to take a moment to reminisce of my time with The Ohio State University this summer as a Field Researcher by sharing some of my biological findings along the way. 

Bird Nests

Ground Nesters

From left to right, A) I was lucky enough to encounter a wild turkey nest at the base of a tree (14 eggs); B) I also found multiple black-and-white warbler nests (each with a clutch size of 3 eggs), each interwoven with deer fur and forming a small nest in various woodland habitats ranging from oak-hickory communities to pine plantations - the nest pictured above was parasitized by a brown-headed cowbird pair; C) Eastern towhee nests (each with two or more eggs), intricately laced with either twigs/tendrills or straw, were common as well. D) Interesting enough, I found more ovenbird nests than any other (each with 4 or more eggs), characterized by their cryptic oven-like construction.

Tree Nesters

From left to right, A) this was the only wood thrush nest I found (4 fledglings) located seven feet off the ground. B) My most exciting find was a yellow-billed cuckoo nest (3 rather large eggs) characterized by loose twigs; C) I also found numerous hooded warbler nests (2 fledglings pictured here) in various habitats - mostly early successional Rubus spp. thickets, and D) one least flycatcher nest (one egg and one fledgling pictured above), characterized by location on the very edge of a maple branch - they can do this as they often nest in protected under-stories of heavily forested ares.

Plants

From left to right, some of the plants I encountered range from A)fire pink, B) wild yam, C)American ginseng, D) pink lady's slipper, E) alternate-leaved dogwood, F) swamp milkweed, G) spotted pipsissewa, H) arrowwood viburnum, I) puttyroot orchid, J) mountain laural, K) woodland sunflower, and L) four-leaf milkweed.

Reptiles

Neonate black rat snake (Pantherophis obsoletus) and a male box turtle (Terrapene carolina)

Fungi

From left to right: A) Amanita muscaria, B) Hydenellum pineteicola, C) Artomyces pyxidatus,  D) Thelephora terrestris, E) Craterellus cornucopioides, F) Amanita abrupta, F) Russula spp., F1) Austroboletus betula, F2) Strobilomyces floccopus

Insects and other Wildlife



From left to right, A) chocolate-brown fishing spider, B) barred owl pellet, C) red-spotted purple, D) fritillary butterfly E) unidentified caterpillar, F) Polyphemus and luna moths, G) whippoorwill H) hardwood stump borer beetle, I) oak apple gall, J) unidentified buckeye fungus, K) American toad, L) Red maple spot.